Therapeutics

17α-Estradiol is a stereoisomer of the dominant estrogen 17β-estradiol with much weaker feminizing activity. In the NIA Interventions Testing Program, it consistently extended…

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) gene therapy uses recombinant AAV capsids to deliver a transgene cassette — typically a promoter, coding sequence, and poly-A signal — to target…

Acarbose is an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor approved for type 2 diabetes mellitus. By blocking intestinal carbohydrate breakdown, it blunts postprandial glucose and insulin spikes…

Low-dose aspirin (typically 75–100 mg daily) is an irreversible COX-1 inhibitor that suppresses platelet thromboxane A2, reducing platelet aggregation. It is approved for…

Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid found in multiple plant genera, including Berberis, Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal), and Coptis chinensis. It is sold as a dietary…

Bisphosphonates are synthetic analogues of pyrophosphate that bind avidly to hydroxyapatite in bone mineral and are taken up by osteoclasts during bone resorption, where…

BPC-157 is a synthetic 15-amino-acid peptide derived from a sequence in human gastric juice, marketed for tendon, ligament, and gut healing. Animal studies suggest pro-angiogenic…

Canakinumab (Ilaris, Novartis) is a fully human IgG1κ monoclonal antibody that neutralizes interleukin-1β. The FDA approved it in 2009 for cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes…

Cerebrolysin is a porcine-brain–derived peptide preparation manufactured by EVER Pharma (Austria), containing low-molecular-weight neuropeptides and free amino acids and marketed…

Colchicine is a plant-derived alkaloid from the autumn crocus (*Colchicum autumnale*) that exerts anti-inflammatory effects by binding tubulin and disrupting microtubule…

CRISPR-based therapies use CRISPR-Cas9, base editors, or prime editors to make targeted, somatic edits to DNA either ex vivo (in harvested cells) or in vivo (directly in the…

Cycloastragenol is the aglycone of astragaloside IV, a cycloartane-type triterpenoid hydrolysis product from Astragalus membranaceus root. In cellular assays it produces mild,…

D+Q is one of the most studied senolytic combinations: dasatinib (a tyrosine-kinase-inhibitor cancer drug) plus quercetin (a flavonoid), given intermittently and designed to…

Denosumab is a fully human IgG2 monoclonal antibody that binds and neutralizes RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand), the cytokine required for osteoclast…

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) circulates mainly as DHEA-S and serves as precursor for peripheral synthesis of testosterone and estradiol. Serum DHEA-S peaks in early adulthood…

Donanemab is a humanised IgG1 monoclonal antibody directed against the pyroglutamate-modified N-terminus of amyloid-beta (N3pG), an epitope found almost exclusively in…

Epitalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) is a synthetic tetrapeptide developed in the 1980s–90s by Vladimir Khavinson's group at the St Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology,…

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles of 30–150 nm diameter that originate from the endosomal multivesicular body pathway and carry a cargo of proteins, lipids, mRNAs, miRNAs, and…

Gene therapy delivers genetic material to add, silence, or edit genes — typically via AAV vectors for stable transgene expression and lipid nanoparticles for transient…

GHK-Cu is the glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine tripeptide complexed with copper(II), a fragment of α2-macroglobulin whose plasma concentration declines with age. In topical cosmetic…

GLP-1 receptor agonists (e.g. liraglutide, semaglutide, dulaglutide) mimic the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1, stimulating glucose-dependent insulin secretion,…

Glucosamine is an endogenous amino sugar and structural precursor of glycosaminoglycans — polysaccharides that maintain cartilage hydration, elasticity, and compressive…

Growth hormone (GH, somatropin) is a peptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that regulates body composition, bone density, and metabolism primarily through hepatic…

Heterochronic parabiosis (HCP) is an experimental surgical technique in which the circulatory systems of a young and an old animal are joined by anastomosis of subcutaneous…

Menopausal HRT replaces estrogen, typically combined with a progestogen in women with a uterus, to relieve vasomotor symptoms, protect bone, and treat genitourinary symptoms. Per…

Humanin is a 24-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide encoded in the 16S rRNA region of mtDNA, originally identified by Hashimoto and Nishimoto in surviving neurons of…

Klotho is a transmembrane protein and co-receptor for FGF23 that declines markedly with age; its soluble circulating form (s-Klotho) suppresses Wnt and TGF-β signalling and has…

Lecanemab is a humanised IgG1 monoclonal antibody that binds soluble amyloid-beta protofibrils and, to a lesser degree, fibrillar plaques. In the phase 3 CLARITY-AD trial it…

Trace lithium exposure from drinking water (~0.01–0.1 mg/L) has been associated with lower all-cause mortality in ecological studies in Japan, Texas, and Europe; the proposed…

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stromal progenitors capable of differentiating into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and adipocytes, and are isolated from bone marrow,…

Metformin is a biguanide oral antidiabetic drug, first-line therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus. It lowers hepatic gluconeogenesis and improves insulin sensitivity, partly via…

Methylene blue (MB) is a synthetic phenothiazine dye with FDA approval (Provayblue, 2016) for treatment of acquired methemoglobinemia at an initial dose of 1 mg/kg intravenously,…

Mitochondrial transplantation involves the direct transfer of intact, metabolically functional mitochondria — isolated from autologous or allogeneic tissue — into ischaemic or…

MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide encoded within the mitochondrial 12S rRNA region. In rodent studies it activates AMPK, inhibits the folate-purine cycle,…

Navitoclax (ABT-263) is an orally bioavailable BH3 mimetic that inhibits BCL-2, BCL-xL, and BCL-W by binding their BH3-interaction groove and displacing pro-apoptotic effectors…

Nicotinamide (NAM, also called niacinamide) is the amide form of vitamin B3 and a direct precursor in NAD+ biosynthesis via the salvage pathway enzyme NAMPT. It is biochemically…

Peptide therapy uses short amino-acid chains, often injected, intended to modulate growth hormone (e.g., sermorelin, ipamorelin), tissue repair, or metabolism. A few peptides are…

Pioglitazone is a thiazolidinedione PPARγ agonist approved for type 2 diabetes mellitus as an insulin sensitizer, acting primarily by promoting the differentiation and lipid…

Plasmapheresis is the umbrella term for extracorporeal procedures that separate plasma from cellular blood components; technique varies, with plasma either fractionated or…

Rapamycin (sirolimus) is a macrolide mTORC1 inhibitor approved as an immunosuppressant to prevent kidney transplant rejection and to treat lymphangioleiomyomatosis. By inhibiting…

Retatrutide (LY3437943) is an investigational once-weekly subcutaneous peptide by Eli Lilly that simultaneously activates the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R), the glucose-dependent…

Semaglutide is a long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist approved for type 2 diabetes (Ozempic, Rybelsus) and chronic weight management (Wegovy). The SELECT trial demonstrated a 20…

A senescent-cell vaccine is an immunological strategy aimed at training the adaptive immune system to recognize and eliminate senescent cells in vivo, analogous to anti-tumour…

Senolytic therapy uses drugs or natural compounds to selectively eliminate senescent cells, which accumulate with age and secrete a multi-component secretome (the SASP) of…

Sermorelin is a synthetic 29-amino-acid analogue of endogenous growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH 1–29) that stimulates pituitary somatotrophs to secrete growth hormone (GH)…

SGLT2 inhibitors (gliflozins, e.g. empagliflozin, dapagliflozin) block renal sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, causing urinary glucose excretion. They are approved for type 2…

Statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, e.g. atorvastatin, rosuvastatin) lower hepatic cholesterol synthesis and upregulate LDL receptors, reducing circulating LDL cholesterol.…

TA-65 is a proprietary, purified cycloastragenol-enriched extract from Astragalus membranaceus, marketed by T.A. Sciences (licensed by Geron) and sold as a telomerase-activating…

Telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) is the catalytic subunit of telomerase; its somatic expression is repressed in most adult human tissues, leading to progressive telomere…

TRT restores testosterone in men with documented hypogonadism (low serum testosterone plus symptoms), via gels, injections, or pellets. Benefits include improved libido, mood,…

TPE is a specific form of plasmapheresis in which approximately one to one-and-a-half plasma volumes are removed and replaced per session with albumin, saline, or donor plasma,…

Thymosin α-1 (Tα1) is a 28-amino-acid peptide derived from prothymosin α, naturally produced by thymic epithelial cells, that modulates innate and adaptive immunity by activating…

Tirzepatide is a once-weekly dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist approved for type 2 diabetes (Mounjaro) and chronic weight management (Zepbound). The dual incretin action…

Urolithin A is a gut-derived metabolite produced when colonic bacteria transform ellagitannins and ellagic acid — polyphenols found in pomegranates, walnuts, and berries — via…

Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) is a key intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle that also serves as an obligate co-substrate for a large family of dioxygenases — including…